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Vegetable Okro Production In Agriculture

VEGETABLE

OKRA
Botanical name:  Abelmoscus esculentus
Cultivated varieties include
1.   Ladies finger
2.   Perkin’s long pod
3.   Local cultivars

CLIMATIC REQUIREMENT
Temperature: 180c - 300c
Rainfall: Okra requires 100cm – 150cnm per annum
Soil requirements:
Okra requires well drained loamy soil
Land preparation
Clear, plough, harrow, ridge
Method of propagation – seed
Spacing: 60cm by 60cm
Planting Date:  Early April to May
Seed Rate: 2-3 seeds per hole which will later be thinned to one seedling per stand
Cultural practices:
Thinning and supplying can be done when necessary.
1.   Fertilizer Application: Apply single super phosphate fertilizer at 100kg per hectare using ring method
2.   Weeding: It should be done regularly
3.   Maturity Period:  Okra mature between 3-7 months after germination (3-5 day after planting) depending on varieties
Harvesting:  Young and succulent green fruits are plucked, harvested by knife. Harvesting is done over a long period of time.
USES OF OKRA
1.   The fruits are used as food

STORAGE
Fresh fruits are stored in cool place e.g. refrigerator. Dried ones are stored in sacks
PESTS OF OKRA
1.   Flea beetle         
2.   Cricket
3.   Grasshopper
CONTROL
Spray with insecticides
DISEASES OF OKRA
1.   Root knot
2.   Mosaic diseases
3.   Damping off
CONTROL
1.   Use resistant varieties
2.   Practice crop rotation
3.   Spray with insecticides to kill the vector
4.   Remove and burn infected plant

Say Goodbye To Your Classic Work Style

Work styles change. Every day. Sometimes they change radically from one year to the other.

New concepts like the “virtual office”, “individual objectives” and “every employee is a small entrepreneur” make their way to the business environment.

Companies change, and this generates a change in the way we work.




Attitude is as important as the person’s background expertise.

Two employees that have similar jobs in the same company can have different attitudes towards their work.






The one who is motivated is proactive, the other one just accumulates frustrations and he would watch the clock frequently when it comes close to 17:00.

The first one will be surely successful, and no matter what his carrier decisions he will take he will surely be successful. the second one will stay where he is and in time he will give up on that company convinced that he is not he one responsible for his condition, that the system or the boss is.

Human resources specialists have spotted the apparition of some significant changes in the working environment and in the way companies and employees express their attitudes towards efficient work.

Fixing realistic and well though objectives by the employer and the way the employees carry them out are the measure for the efficiency of that particular company.

The companies are more and more into showing their employees what responsibility really is and giving them the flexibility of decisions.

In many companies employees settle their own objectives and they find the time, the energy the motivation and the practical means to achieve them.

Written or not, objectives evolve along with the strategy and the politics of each company.

Also, the daily action feed-back, going out with the team, meetings with team-building purposes, plans of individual development, promotion perspectives, bonuses packages are just a couple of examples to bring value and fidelity in order to maintain the employees’ motivation and their efforts.

Modern companies ask very much of their employees but they know how to repay their efforts and how to keep them motivated.

Cotton Production In Agriculture

Botanical Name:  Gossypium Spp.
VARIETIES 
i.       Allah jac
ii.       Ishan  
Gossypium hirum
Gossypium perurianium
Soil requirement: Cotton requires rich, deep loamy or clay soil but avoid planting cotton on virgin land because it results to more vegetative growth and less seed formation.
 
Rainfall:  150cm well distributed over 4 to 5 months
 
Temperature:  250c – 300c especially during maturity and drying period.
 
Land preparation:  Deep ploughing about 20cm deep for sole cropping. 
 
Planting date: Between June and July in the North
 
Seed rate: 15kg - 20kg per hectare 2 to 3 per hole but you can later thin to one.
 
Planting techniques:  Plant 4 to 6 seeds per hole at 2.5cm depth and later thin to 2 seedlings per stand.
 
POST PLANNING OPERATION
1.   Weeding: Weeding is carried out 3 to 4 times before maturity but the first weeding must be done along with thinning and it must be done before fertilizer application.
2.  
 Fertilizer application: Apply sulphate to ammonia (NH4S04) immediately after thinning or apply 125kg of super phosphate per hectare during planting.
3.   
 Mulching: There is need for mulching to prevent excessive water and erosion
4.    
Maturity: Cotton mature between 5 – 6 months after planting
5.   
 Harvesting: Harvesting of cotton is done by hand picking of matured fruits between November and January and it is better harvested in the afternoon when it is dry.
COTTON CLOSE SEASON
          This is a period when cotton should no more remain on the field or soil usually mid. March and mid- June.
Yield:  500kg to 1500kg per hectare in developed world/ country and 500kg per hectare in the north
Local farming 70-150kg per hectare
Processing
Ginning: This is the removal of lints from seeds. Ginning has percentage which is  WEIGHT OF LINTS X 100
Weight of cotton seed
After grading of cotton. It is packed into unit called bales
A bale of lint is 180kg
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF COTTON (USES)
1.   It is used to manufacture textile
2.   It is a good source of planting material or it is used for planting.
3.   Oil can be extracted from cotton seed
4.   Lint is used in making pillow
5.   Cotton has medicinal uses
DISEASES AND PESTS
1.   Bacterial blights or black arm/angular spot
2.   Causative organism: bacteria
The disease only affects the vegetative part of cotton
MODE OF TRANSMISSION
It is an air-borne disease that enter into the plant through their stomata
SYMPTOMS
1.   Irregular sports on leaves and branches which can cause the death of the plant
2.   Discolouration of lints
CONTROL
1.   Treat seeds with chemical before planting
2.   Observe cotton close season
3.   Practice crop rotation

Cultivation And Production Of Citrus (ORANGE) In Agriculture

Botanical name:   Citrus  spp
Family:  Ruta ceae
Origin:   Asia
VARIETIES
1.   Sweet orange (citrus sinensis) 7m by 7m 
2.   Sour orange (citrus aurantium) 7m by 7m 
3.   Tangerine (citrus nobilis)  (citrus reticulanta) 7m by 7m 
4.   Shad dock: (citrus maxima) 6m by 6m 
5.   Grape (citrus paradisi) 8.1m by 8.1m 
6.   Lime (citrus aurantifolia) 8.1m by 8.1m 
7.   Sweet lime (citrus limetta) 8.1m by 8.1m 
The following are to be considered in selecting site for citrus
Citrus grow well in tropical and sub-tropical climate.
The plant requires moisture because its main product is water based.
Excessive moisture is not good because it makes fruit to be over sized/ puffy.
CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS
Rainfall – 1000 mm- 2000mm evenly distributed over at least a month for citrus at the time of flowering and fruiting.
Temperature: 150c – 550 for growth and optimum for vegetative growth 290c-29.40c temperature for ripening is 12.80c – 18.30c
SOIL REQUIREMENTS
Well drained, deep, loamy soil not too acidic is required. Water logging area must be avoided.
LAND PREPARATION
Citrus does not require shade in the field, so trees that can provide shade should be cut.
METHOD OF PROPAGATION
By seed (sexual or vegetative propagation)
POST PLANTING OPERATION
Post planning operation is the same as that of cocoa
MATURITY PERIOD: it is between 3-7 years
HARVESTING.
1.   Fruits are easily perishable therefore they should be harvested as soon as they mature
2.   Care must be taking during harvesting to avoid damage to the fruits
3.   Harvesting knife is used in harvesting citrus
USE
1.   It is used as drink (food)
DISEASE OF CITRUS
Citrus diseases may be caused by any of the group pathogen. The diseases of citrus are as follow.
1.   Tristeza (viral disease)
CONTROL
  Plant resistant variety
2.   Gummosis – (fungi disease)
Control – spray with appropriate fungicide
Causative organism: phytophthera citrophthora
3.   Scab (fungi disease)
 Control: Proper farm sanitation and use plant resistant variety
PESTS OF CITRUS
1.   Purple scale
2.   Mealy bug
3.   Aphids
4.   Fruit moths
5.   Leaf hoppers

How To Acquire Power Through Self Development

It is the natural right of every human being to be happy to escape all the miseries of life.

Happiness is the normal condition, as natural as the landscapes and the seasons.


It is unnatural to suffer and it is only because of our ignorance that we do suffer.

Happiness is the product of wisdom.

To attain perfect wisdom, to comprehend fully the purpose of life, to realize completely the relationship of human beings to each other, is to put an end to all suffering, to escape every ill and evil that afflicts us.




Perfect wisdom is unshadowed joy.

Why do we suffer in life? Because in the scheme of nature we are being forced forward in evolution and we lack the spiritual illumination that alone can light the way and enable us to move safely among the obstacles that lie before us.

Usually we do not even see or suspect the presence of trouble until it suddenly leaps upon us like a concealed tiger.

One day our family circle is complete and happy.

A week later death has come and gone and joy is replaced with agony.

Today we have a friend. Tomorrow he will be an enemy and we do not know why.

A little while ago we had wealth and all material luxuries.

There was a sudden change and now we have only poverty and misery and yet we seek in vain for a reason why this should be.

There was a time when we had health and strength; but they have both departed and no trace of a reason appears.

Aside from these greater tragedies of life innumerable things of lesser consequence continually bring to us little miseries and minor heartaches.

We most earnestly desire to avoid them but we never see them until they strike us, until in the darkness of our ignorance we blunder upon them.

The thing we lack is the spiritual illumination that will enable us to look far and wide, finding the hidden causes of human suffering and revealing the method by which they may be avoided; and if we can but reach illumination the evolutionary journey can be made both comfortably and swiftly.

It is as though we must pass through a long, dark room filled with furniture promiscuously scattered about.

In the darkness our progress would be slow and painful and our bruises many.

But if we could press a button that would turn on the electric light we could then make the same journey quickly and with perfect safety and comfort.

The old method of education was to store the mind with as many facts, or supposed facts, as could be accumulated and to give a certain exterior polish to the personality.

The theory was that when a man was born he was a completed human being and that all that could be done for him was to load him up with information that would be used with more or less skill, according to the native ability he happened to be born with.

The theosophical idea is that the physical man, and all that constitutes his life in the physical world, is but a very partial expression of the self; that in the ego of each there is practically unlimited power and wisdom; that these may be brought through into expression in the physical world as the physical body and its invisible counterparts, which together constitute the complex vehicle of the ego's manifestation, are evolved and adapted to the purpose; and that in exact proportion that conscious effort is given to such self-development will spiritual illumination be achieved and wisdom attained.

Thus the light that leads to happiness is kindled from within and the evolutionary journey that all are making may be robbed of its suffering.

Why does death bring misery? Chiefly because it separates us from those we love.

The only other reason why death brings grief or fear is  because we do not understand it and comprehend the part it plays in human evolution.

But the moment our ignorance gives way to comprehension such fear vanishes and a serene happiness takes its place.

Why do we have enemies from whose words or acts we suffer?

Because in our limited physical consciousness we do not perceive the unity of all life and realize that our wrong thinking and doing must react upon us through other people a situation from which there is no possible escape except through ceasing to think evil and then patiently awaiting the time when the causes we have already generated are fully exhausted.

When spiritual illumination comes, and we no longer stumble in the night of ignorance, the last enemy will disappear and we shall make no more forever.

Why do people suffer from poverty and disease?

Only because of our blundering ignorance that makes their existence possible for us, and because we do not comprehend their meaning and their lessons, nor know the attitude to assume toward them.

Had we but the wisdom to understand why they come to people, why they are necessary factors in their evolution, they would trouble us no longer.

When nature's lesson is fully learned these mute teachers will vanish.

And so it is with all forms of suffering we experience.

They are at once reactions from our ignorant blunderings and instructors that point out the better way.

When we have comprehended the lessons they teach they are no longer necessary and disappear.

It is not by the outward  acquirement of facts that men become wise and great.

It is by developing the soul from within until it illuminates the brain with that flood of light called genius.

Have a wonderful day.

The Production Process Of Cocoa

Botanical name: Theobroma cacao
Origin:  South Africa, Brazil
Climatic and soil requirement:  Sunlight
Sunlight:  Cocoa requires a lot of sunlight for photosynthesis
Rainfall:  1000mm – 3000mm of rainfall per annum (annually)
Temperature:  About 25.50c with a daily variation of + 10 or – 100c and relative humidity must be high.
Soil requirement:  As a dicotyledonous crop cocoa requires a deep well drained soil that is free from hard pan.
Nursery: Cocoa seeds are usually grown/raised in polythene bag or other plastic containers at the nursery after which it is transplanted to field.
          Before cocoa seedlings are transplanted to the field there is need to cut the trees on the field and replace them with plant that provide shade for the seedlings.
Plants that can be used to provide shade include cocoyam, plantain, banana. These plants are used to provide shade because:
1.   They are easy to establish and eradicate
2.   They serve economic purpose
3.   They compete as little as possible with the main crop
Mulching: When cocoa seeds are sown in the polythene bag at nursery, there is need to mulch it to conserve soil moisture, to control erosion and to add more manure to the soil.
During mulching, give a gap of about 15cm radius to the base of the plant to prevent insects and other micro-organism from attacking the plants.
Transplanting:  Transplanting of cocoa seedlings to the field is done around June to July.
Spacing: The spacing required is 8.1m by 3.1m
Prunning: Pruning is done to control plant size by removing unwanted growth from the plants.
Sometimes, pruning is done to regenerate old trees, but it must be done carefully to avoid unnecessary injury to the plants and after prunning paint the cut surface to prevent attack of micro organisms.     
Weed Control:  Weeding can be done by using human labour or herbicides, it can also be controlled by plants by centrosema, calopogonium, puereria.
Fertilizer Application: If transplanting is done in June, apply ammonium suplhate in ring form in September. Do the same or repeat this process in the second and third year, discourage ring application after formation of canopy and do broadcast. Always weed before broadcasting.
Maturity and flowering: Flowering begins 3-5 years after transplanting, cocoa matures in 130 to 150 days from the time of flowering.
Harvesting: Harvesting is done when the pods are beginning to lose chlorophyll/ turning fellow. Harvesting is done fortnightly or every two weeks, unhealthy pods must be discarded during harvesting, cutlass or harvesting knife can be used to harvest cocoa.
Processing:
Stage 1:
Break the pod and remove the beans
Stage 2: Ferment the cocoa beans so as to
1.   Make drying easy
2.   Kill the embryo to stop germination
3.   Help remove musilage
4.   Develop flavor, aroma and colour
TYPES OF FERMENTATION
1.   Heap Fermentation: Put the beans in hole laid with banana leaves, cover with leaves and put heavy sticks over it, three days after open up and mix the beans together and cover with leaves again. After another three days repeat the process, leave it for three days after which you remove the beans from the hole for sun drying.
2.   Basket fermentation: This type of fermentation is the same as heap fermentation but basket is used as container instead of hole
3.   Sweat Box Fermentation: Here, three boxes are needed, cocoa beans are removed from each box at interval of three days after three days in the third box cocoa beans are removed for sundrying.
4.   Tray Method Fermentation: Here, fermentation is faster; usually it is over in four days. Trays with perforation underneath are arranged over each other but the last tray is not perforated and contains no beans. Apart from being fast, it does not require mixing of beans together.
DRYING
There are two methods of drying
a.    Natural Drying: In natural method of drying cocoa beans are put on slabs or tray and exposed to sunlight
b.   Artificial Drying: Artificial drying involves the use of Cameroun dryer to dry cocoa beans.
Grading: The present grade of cocoa is grade I and II
Grade I: They have 3% slaty beans less than 3% mould beans and less than 30% of other defectives.
Grade II: They have less than 5% slaty beans less than 5% mould beans and less than 5% of other defectives
Slaty beans are cocoa beans that are not properly fermented and they are blank in colour. 

    DISEASES OF COCOA
1.   Swollen shoot: it is a viral disease transmitted by meal bug
Symptoms: it appears 6 months after infection on the leaves
The vein becomes reddish, swells and noticed on the shoot of the plant where the attack is severe
Control:
i.             Use resistance variety
ii.           Eliminate the vector
2.   Black pod: it is caused by fungus (phytophthora palmvera)
It is usually high in areas with high rainfall
Symptoms:
1.   Small brown spot with irregular shape on pods which increases in size and gradually covers with white moulds.
Control:-
1.   Remove and discard infected pod
2.   Weed regularly
3.   Spray with copper based chemical

PESTS OF COCOA
1.   Myrids: It is a piercing and sucking insect and the most serious pest of cocoa. It kills young plants and causes damage to matured ones.
Control:
i.     Use chemical to spray the farm every five days because the myrid’s egg hatch in cooca and they lay their eggs every four hours
ii.   Practice farm hygiene
iii.  Shade management: This helps to reduce myrids occurrence, myrids feed in the night and rest during the day. Therefore, the shade brings darkness to the insects and stop the feeding.

USES OF COCOA
i.     It is used in making beverages
ii.   It is used for making cocoa butter
iii.  For making cocoa wine
iv.  For making soap
v.    For making cocoa polish
vi.  For making chocolate

RUBBER PRODUCTION
Botanical name: Hevea braziliensis
It is the best latex producing crop
Rainfall: not less than 200cm because the commercial product of rubber is water based. All other factors such as relative humidity, topography, altitude and soil affects rubber just like cocoa. 
Land Preparation: Trees of the field where rubber will be cultivated should be cut because rubber does not require shade on the field. Remove the roots and stump so as to avoid root diseases

Cover Crops: Cover crops can be established before or immediately after planting

Rubber passes through pre-nursery before transplanting, In the nursery, budding takes place and the following materials are used for budding:
a)    Budding knife
b)   Budding tape
c)    Bud of the plant
Post – planting operation
i.     Avoid the use of herbicides with seedlings because late flow could be affected with the use of herbicides
ii.           Establish cover crops
iii.          Carry out mulching
iv.          Supply water if need be
v.            Pruning
vi.          Apply recommended fertilizer e.g. N.P.K 15:15:15
vii.         Regular control of pests and diseases

Propagation
1.   Vegetative propagation is done around March to April or at the beginning rainy season
Pre-nursery is carried out between August and October
Nursery is done nine months after pre-nursery

Spacing:  4m by 5m
LATEX VESSEL
These are excretory vessels located at the cortex on the tree.
Stone cell:  These are new cells which cannot assume excretory function.
Sieve:  These are structures which are meant to sieve the latex
Renewed bark: Tapping of rubber is a controlled and scientific wounding to the bark.
If the bark does not regenerate tapping is not possible. Rubber has ability to heal the wound, after healing, the bark that is formed is called renewed bark.
Latex flow:  Generally, latex decreases from the trunk below the leafy branches. The velocity of latex flow is higher in the middle bark i.e. the older the virgin bark the better.
The first renewed bark yield more than the subsequent bark are the same height of tapping.
Rubber Tapping:
TAPPING PANEL SYSTEM
The direction of flow of latex is found to run from right to the left.

The Process Of Casava Production In Agriculture

Botanical name: Manihot spp
Varieties: There are two major varieties of cassava that are commonly grown in West African they are:  
1.   Bitter cassava – Manihot utilisima
2.   Sweet cassava- Manihot Palmata
Sweet cassava; it is mainly used for feeding animals.
Bitter cassava: It requires temperature of about 200c-310c.
Rainfall: ranges from 150cm – 200cm
Soil requirement: requires light sand, loamy soil, deep fertile well drained with organic matter
Land preparation:
1.   Clearing of the land, clearing of bushes of vegetation cover either mechanically or manually.
2.   Tilling: (Plough, Harrow, Ridge)
Propagation: cassava can only be propagated through the stem cutting, cassava stem should be planted in a slanting position at an angle of 450.
3.   Spacing:- It varies depending on land preparation. It could either be by making ridges on flat land
4.   Planting date: cassava is planted anytime during the raining season in the southern part i.e. between May and September, but in the northern part is planted between May-August.
CULTURAL PRACTICES  
1.   Weeding: Weeding can be performed once before harvesting. It is done manually, mechanically and chemically.
2.   Fertilizer application: Cassava requires N.P.K fertilizer and should be applied four weeks after planting
3.   Maturity: cassava matures between 6 months-18 months
4.   Harvesting: It can be harvested by uprooting the tubber. The tubber is dugged up from the soil.

5.   Farm level processing:
GAARI
1.   Harvesting of the cassava tuber
2.   Peeling
3.   Washing of peeled tuber
4.   Grinding/Grating
5.   Parking of grated cassava inside bag or sacks
6.   Fermentation for 2-4 days
7.   Pressing to remove toxic contents or hydro cyanic acid (HCN)
8.   Sieving
9.   Frying
10. Bagging
FLOUR
1.   Soaking of cassava tuber for 3-5 days
2.   Removal of the peels
3.   Marsh the tubers
4.   Sun drying
5.   Grinding
6.   Bagging
CHIPS
1.   Peel the cassava
2.   Cut the tubers to pieces
3.   Sun drying
4.   Grinding
5.   Bagging
PESTS AND DISEASES 
1.   Masaic (viral disease)
2.   Blight (Bacteria)
3.   Leaf spot (fungal disease)
PESTS
i.             Zonocerous varigatus (Grashopper)
ii.           Rodent
iii.          Birds